Europe in the 1. 8th Century. Europe in the 1. 8th Century. In Europe, the eighteenth century was a period of intellectual, social, and political ferment. This time is often referred to as the Age of Enlightenment, for it was in the 1. In academia, the relatively- new fields of calculus and mechanics began to influence thinking about the workings of the universe. Politically, the ideas of John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and others would give rise to a notion of democracy that would ultimately supplant the monarchical power structure on the European continent. By the end of the century, Adam Smith's economic ideas would provide the intellectual basis for the development of modern capitalism. Until then, much of what is now considered scientific inquiry was pursued by a relatively small group of academics whose writings did not enjoy widespread circulation. Beginning in the late 1. The first was the foundation of the Paris Academy and the Royal Society of London, two institutions whose primary purpose was to do scientific research and report their conclusions to the public. Petersburg Academy, the Turin Society, and many others. Frequently, these academies operated under the patronage of a particular monarch, and as such were subject to the changing desires of those individuals. While this made life in academia somewhat erratic, there was a great deal more continuity and freedom than had existed previously. These publications were often produced by the academies themselves (e. London's Philosophical Transactions and Paris's M. These new journals circulated to a wide audience that included many outside the scientific community. In one sense, these are among the first . As such, the 1. 8th century was a time when scientific tracts could become bestsellers. One of Euler's books, Lettres . As the most prolific mathematician and scientist of the time, Leonhard Euler made significant contributions to many different fields, including optics, mechanics, artillery, naval science, planetary motion, and several branches of calculus. More recently, the 2. Potatoes did not become a major part of the diet until the 18th century. How to Cite This Source. Lynda Payne, "Health in England (16th The food and clothing a man may consume in a lifetime. Calculated for the 19th century. Eye-opener to the loss of variety in modern diets. What were the main health problems in the 18th century? In Europe, the eighteenth century was a period of intellectual. As such, the 18th century was a time when scientific tracts could become bestsellers. Clifford Truesdell has calculated that of all the mathematical and scientific work published during the whole of the 1. Food and Drink — EGO. There is scarcely an aspect of daily cultural practice which illustrates the processes of transformation in European culture as clearly as daily nutrition. Indeed, securing the latter was essential for the daily fight for survival right up to the mid- 1. Consequently, food and drink were central both in daily life and in the celebration of feasts, and provided an opportunity for social differentiation. The hope for better nutrition was the primary impetus for many migration processes and a canvas onto which desires were projected. Mai oder Konrad reitet in die S. Particularly in pre- modern society, what people ate was decided to a far greater degree by political, economic, and religious factors. The selection of foods, but also the dining culture and the norms of behaviour at the table were defined by tradition, and were considered to be binding on all members of society. For much of the modern era, European culinary culture exhibited enormous spatial and social diversity, which persisted well into the 2. However, this broad spectrum of traditions, which in effect only had an emphasis on energy- rich foods and protein- rich products in common, began to narrow from the 1. European social elite – as French aristocratic cuisine became the example for others to follow. In the 2. 0th century, another dominant culinary culture, the American, arrived on the scene, but this was now based on industrial production, products aimed at a mass market, and in particular on a new dining context, which over time played a central role in the dissolution of established dining chronologies. Many aspects of daily nutrition have left little trace in the historical sources. This is particularly true of the rural context and of foodstuffs which were neither traded nor taxed, such as herbs and vegetables from garden plots, and mushrooms and berries gathered in the autumn. We nevertheless know, for example, that turnips, cabbages, beans, and peas, along with leeks, celery, and pumpkins formed the basis of the diet of the rural population. At the beginning of the 1. Brussels sprouts, swedes, cauliflowers, mangolds and lettuce were added from the late 1. The fertile soils of southwest Germany, the low countries and, in particular, France were far superior to the less fertile soils of eastern Europe and Russia when it came to growing these new vegetables. In the sparsely populated Scandinavian north, horticulture was not possible at all. However, gathering fruits and plants in forests played a more important role there. We have more detailed information regarding the consumption of alcohol, as this has left deeper traces in the historical sources – for both fiscal reasons and reasons of public order – which is why this topic is dealt with in greater detail in this article. There are a number of distinct phases in the history of nutrition in the modern period, though these overlap to a considerable degree, affecting one another but also diverging. For this reason, it is difficult to draw a hard and fast distinction between them. However, two large phases emerge rather clearly. There was the Reformation period, which ended with the Thirty Years' War (1. And there was the Little Ice Age, which caused numerous harvest failures and continuing undernourishment up to the 1. However, new foods from other continents and the colonies also appeared on the menu in Europe during this period, and table manners which were formerly only observed among the aristocracy gradually became the norm among broader sections of the population. The End of Medieval Cuisine? At the beginning of the modern period, the diet in Europe remained very similar to the medieval period, and old traditions were only replaced gradually. For the majority of the population – particularly in the towns and cities of central Europe – this meant that the calorie intake was higher compared to the preceding centuries, and compared to the 1. It is estimated that roughly 2. Recent research suggests that the consumption of meat was lower during this period than academics had previously assumed,7 though it is likely that roughly 5. Alps. Meat consumption was considerably higher in the northern part of the German- speaking territory than in the Mediterranean region, for example. A complete daily ration usually consisted of a morning meal after the morning work had been completed (. In addition to these, up to three other meals were consumed daily: morning soup, supper and nightcap. Among the poor, the dietary staples were primarily bread and a kind of porridge (a puree made with grain, usually cooked in lard). The whiter the bread, the more refined it was considered to be. In the case of meat, boiled soup meat was the simplest and the cheapest option. Roasts, poultry, and game were more prestigious, and they were the preserve of the nobility. There were also differences between rich and poor with regard to the consumption of fish, which was primarily consumed on fast days, of which there were up to 1. The wealthier section of the population availed of a range of fresh salt- water and fresh- water fish. Salmon was the most popular species. As a fresh- water fish, it could be caught relatively easily almost everywhere in central Europe. In addition to native river crabs, the poor primarily ate salted or dried sea fish, even in regions far from the coast. From the mid- 1. 4th century, fish farming flourished in a broad belt stretching from Bohemia, Poland and Silesia through Lusatia to W. There were also dramatic differences between the social classes when it came to the supply of vegetables. The poor could scarcely afford anything other than dried legumes, while the rich could purchase fresh seasonal vegetables, and in the larger cities they could even buy citrus fruits from time to time. The consumption of alcohol underwent a fundamental change at the beginning of the modern period. From the late medieval period onward, less wine was produced and consumed, primarily due to the increasingly unsuitable climate. Additionally, from the 1. Wine – often spiced, sugared, and heated – then became a central element of the drinks culture of the higher social classes throughout Europe. However, the volume of alcoholic drinks consumed was not nearly as large as earlier studies of customs and culture had assumed. According to realistic estimations, the average consumption in Cologne, one of the wealthiest cities during that period, lay at most between 1. However, many people drank mainly – or exclusively – water, as pre- modern agrarian society was not capable of producing ingredients of sufficient quality for brewing in sufficient quantities. The combination of food, the community, and public display played a central role in social and cultural life. This was fundamentally true of the agrarian context. Painted in Flanders around 1. De Boerenbruiloft (The Peasant Wedding) by Pieter Bruegel the Elder (ca. Due to numerous saints' days, feast days, and public holidays, urban artisans worked no more than 2. The food consumed on work- free days differed to that consumed on workdays for it was richer and higher in protein. However, just like during the week, it was consumed in a group, usually with work colleagues rather than with the family, and the dining context reflected hierarchies and traditions. Elaborate and formal public feasts served to demonstrate hierarchical structures. For example, the aldermen of the wealthy city of Constance on Lake Constance put on a feast in December 1. As the city accounts record . The city accounts detail exactly what was served. The organizers purchased 9. They also procured spices, sugar, almonds, saffron, and 1. Galrey fish galantine. In addition to these enormous quantities of fish and meat, bread, rice, cake, cheese, confectionery, and nuts were provided. Compared to the vast expenditure on food, the crockery provided was decidedly modest. Tellerbrot (literally . Did each guest really eat two kilos of meat, numerous fish, and trimmings, and drink five litres of wine? That was certainly not the case. We must assume instead that the leftovers were brought home, donated to the poor, or given to employees of the city as a form of inflation- free payment- in- kind. The transition from the medieval to the modern period had comparatively little effect at the dinner table, and many basic structures of medieval mealtimes persisted well into the 1. However, this does not apply to behaviour at the table. A range of French rules of behaviour from the mid- 1. The . In the late 1. On the one hand, people were still placing gnawed chicken bones back in the bowl, while, on the other hand, there was much discussion about the rules regarding fasting and the godlessness of gluttony. During the course of the 1. Tischzucht (table discipline) was also discussed in the more urbanized regions of the German- speaking territory. One of the earliest such documents was a book entitled Von tisch zucht published in 1. Clara H. This work discusses among other things the hierarchy at the table and the importance of saying grace. Such rules soon became standard for the entire European bourgeoisie and they signalled the emerging homogenization of the dining culture of the European bourgeoisie and aristocracy. During the transition to the modern period, hostelries also emerged as an integrative component of the European culture of dining and imbibing. Particularly along trade routes and in cities, multifunctional hostelries became common and served as centres of communication and the exchange of news, while in the countryside and in the sparsely populated regions of northern and eastern Europe, the older, archaic hospitality remained dominant. We can summarize that the structure of the European diet changed comparatively little between 1.
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